International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3, Issue 10, October-2012 1
ISSN 2229-5518
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3, Issue 10 October-2012 1
ISSN 2229-5518
Environmental Distribution of Trace Metals in the Biu Volcanic Province Nigeria: Exposure and Associated Human Health Problems
Lar, U.A, Usman, A. M
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The Biu volcanic covers a superficial area of 5000Km2 with a thickness of 250m, made up of several simple volcanoes with very large craters (caldera) of greater than
1km, suggesting that quite a large volume of magma, volcanic ash and pyroclastic materials erupted.
Volcanism and related igneous activities redistribute
harmful elements, (such as arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, lead, radon, and uranium) on the surface of the earth.
Through physical and chemical weathering processes, rocks break down to form the soils on which the crops that constitute the food supply are raised for humans and animals consumption.
Drinking water travels through rocks and soils as part of
the hydrological cycle and in the process leached elements in solution [5].
Environmental pollution arising from the distribution
elements by natural or anthropogenic processes distorts geochemical systems. The natural geochemical composition of rocks and soils that make up the environment where we live may become direct risks to human health and may be the underlying cause of element deficiency and toxicity [6]. The purpose of this study is to determine the concentrations levels of trace metals in the soil and natural waters of Biu Volcanic Province Nigeria as well as human health problems associated with the exposure to these elements.
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U. A. Lar, Department of Geology and Mining, University of Jos, Nigeria.
+2348037039175. Ualexanderlar@yahoo.co.uk
U.A. Mohammed, National Steel Raw Materials Exploration Agency,
(Bauchi Exploration Base), Bauchi, Nigeria. :adamuusman@gmail.com
Biu Plateau is situated on the structural and topographic divide, a broad E-W ridge or swell of basement between the Benue and Chad sedimentary basins “Fig. 1”.
Fig. 1: Location Map of Biu Plateau and other Rock types in Nigeria
(After Wright, 1976)
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The basalt of the Biu Plateau mainly overlies Basement rocks which are predominantly granites, granite- gneiss and Fayalite-quartz, Monzonite, Bauchites (near Wandali at the SW margin of the plateau), hypersthenes diorite, volcanic and sub volcanic rocks of the Burashika group [13].
Two important post depositional processes affect
the Poliocene basalts. The first was internal, the crystallization of zeolites and calcite, which are abundant in vesicular and rubbly interflow horizons. The second is surface weathering to clays and laterites. The basalt of the poorly drained northeastern plains is deeply decomposed to clay presumably a continuing process. Much less widespread, but more significant, is the development of laterite on the high Plateau.
12°07' 12°13'
BIU, NIGERIA
TILA LAK
10°44'
Crater Lake Settlement
Rivers
Major Roads
The rocks in the Biu Plateau mostly occur as “flood basalts” in a number of flows and in fact cover nearly 85% of the area with its centre around Biu [13]. However, the basaltic sequence in the Northwestern part of Biu (Miringa area, “Fig. 2” is surrounded by several youthful scoria, cinder cones, tephra rings etc, the pyroclastics are generally restricted to the area west of Biu- Damaturu road.
Fig. 2: Geological map on Biu-plateau (after Saidu, 2004)
The volcanoes are built up by essentially basaltic rocks consisting of phenocrysts of both olivine, plagioclase (bytwonite-labradorite), and rarely pyroxene (diopside- augite) set in a groundmass of labradorite laths, magnetite, ilmenite, minor K-feldspars, nepheline and volcanic Glass [10]. The land Sat image “Fig. 3” gives synoptic view of the study area.
10°31'
Fig. 3: Landsat image of the Study Area, insert are craters and Tila
Lake
Sampling was accomplished during the dry season (March 28-April 25 2009). A total number of thirty seven (37) acidified water samples and thirteen (13) soils samples were collected over an area of 150 km2 for geochemical analysis to determine their trace element concentrations. The sampling was done at the peak of dry season. However, care was taken to preserve a uniform distribution of sampling sites over the study area. The sampling locations of the study area are presented in “Fig. 4”.
Fig. 4: sampling locations of the study area
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In view of the usual low trace element concentrations in water, various measures were taken to prevent the slightest contamination in the collected samples.
They were kept to dry up in an oven at room
temperature. The next step was immediate wrapping of the bottle with sterilized thin film ready for sample collection.
The bottles were finally rinsed with distilled water
and kept to dry in an oven at 250C. One important step taken was the immediate wrapping of the bottle with sterilized thin film with the top of the bottle folding over a non- contaminating stiffened material attached to the twisted end. With these procedures the bottles were protected and ready for sample collection.
The water samples ware acidified with one or two drops of HNO3 to keep the ions in solution and to prevent their absorption and precipitation in solution. A test for pH, temperature T and Electric Conductivity EC were done using the pH meter.
Soil samples were also collected at a depth of 10-
15cm at each site and stored in sample bags. The soil samples
were ground pulverized and digested using Aqua-regia
prior to geochemical analysis on ICP-POES.
Trace and major elements were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) at Geochemistry Laboratory, University of Jos, Nigeria.
Both the accuracy and precision of ICP-OES
measurements is dependent, in part, upon the calibration technique used in most cases, accuracies and precisions of ~
1 - 3 % may be expected.
The most common calibration technique options for ICP-OES measurements are calibration curve and standard additions. In addition, the option of using internal standardization is available for the calibration curve technique and the ability of matrix matching. ICP-OES has the added option of using an internal standard that has a known concentration of the element measured.
For quantitative ICP-OES analysis, calibration is most
commonly achieved by external standardization. The signal
intensities of all analyte isotopes are measured in a blank as well as in one or more artificial or natural standards with different, known analyte concentrations that cover the concentration range of interest.
The (hopefully) linear relationship between the blank-
corrected standards on a diagram of signal intensity versus concentration is used to establish a calibration curve that may be used to calculate the concentration of the analytes in samples of unknown composition.
Twenty five elements (Ba, As, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, I,
K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Sc, Se, Sr, Ti, V, Z) were analyzed in the waters samples, while twenty elements (Mg, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Mo, Cd, Sb, Pb, Be, Tl ) were analyzed in the soil samples.
Geochemical results of the various sample media are presented in “Table 1 and 2”. Concentration of trace elements of the waters of the study area will be compared with Organization (WHO) admissible levels for drinking water (2008). Average chemical composition (ACC) of Biu Plateau Basalt [11], “Table 3” is used as reference material to understand the distribution and concentration of the elements in volcanic soils of the study area.
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Table 1a: Major and Trace Element Concentration in water
Samples Locality ID | Coordinates | As | Ba | Ca | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | I | K | Mg | Mn | As | ||
(mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | ||||
BH1 Waka . . 0.224 0.025 127.3 0.003 0.002 0.011 0.02 0.005 27.46 <DL 61.83 0.095 0.224 | ||||||||||||||||
BH2 | Hena | . | . | 0.089 | 0.019 | 56.27 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.004 | <DL | 13.59 | <DL | 32.72 | 0.039 | 0.089 |
BH3 | Army Barrack | . | . | 0.039 | 0.017 | 73.18 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.006 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 42.32 | 0.046 | 0.039 |
BH4 | Biu BCJ | . | . | 0.07 | 0.016 | 48.76 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.005 | <DL | 12.45 | <DL | 26.44 | 0.031 | 0.07 |
W1 | BCJ | . | . | 0.04 | 0.012 | 22.27 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 13.45 | 0.008 | 0.04 |
W2 | Wakama | . | . | 0.315 | 0.2 | 299.7 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.022 | 0.048 | 0.128 | 0.24 | 22.51 | 171.3 | 0.313 | 0.315 |
W3 | Yimirshika | . | . | 0.037 | 0.014 | 19.14 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 7.346 | 0.011 | 0.037 |
W4 | Waka | . | 0.023 | 0.014 | 31.9 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.002 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 14.84 | 0.021 | 0.023 | |
W5 | Biu | . | . | 0.227 | 0.181 | 317.6 | 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.013 | <DL | 1.516 | 13.6 | 7.791 | 89.89 | 0.65 | 0.227 |
W6 | biladega | . | 0.066 | 0.037 | 62.83 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.009 | <DL | 1.778 | <DL | 25.33 | 0.051 | 0.066 | |
W7 | Tabra Fulani | . | . | 0.083 | 0.037 | 74.85 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.008 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 37.58 | 0.046 | 0.083 |
W8 | Malan | . | . | 0.039 | 0.013 | 42.03 | <DL | 0.001 | <DL | 0.005 | <DL | 2.21 | <DL | 17.92 | 0.027 | 0.039 |
W9 | Tila | . | . | 0.059 | 0.019 | 46.05 | 0.001 | 0.001 | <DL | 0.007 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 28.47 | 0.035 | 0.059 |
W10 | Tila | . | . | 0.043 | 0.012 | 34.36 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.004 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 18.44 | 0.016 | 0.043 |
W11 | Tila | . | . | 0.006 | 0.031 | 52.54 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.017 | <DL | 10.49 | <DL | 36.52 | 0.05 | 0.006 |
W12 | Yimirshika | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W13 | Hena | . | . | 0.123 | 0.025 | 54.27 | <DL | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.032 | <DL | 2.824 | 24.17 | 0.059 | 0.123 |
W14 | Hena | . | . | 0.229 | 0.085 | 254.8 | <DL | 0.007 | 0.016 | 0.048 | 0.141 | 8.145 | 10.8 | 99.17 | 0.409 | 0.229 |
W15 | BCJ | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
W16 | Yimirshika | . | . | 0.136 | 0.012 | 26.4 | <DL | 0.002 | <DL | 0.003 | 0.024 | <DL | 0.646 | 9.325 | 0.042 | 0.136 |
W17 | Gwarta | . | 0.29 | 0.12 | 171 | <DL | 0.008 | 0.015 | 0.033 | 0.07 | 10.59 | 5.808 | 60.19 | 0.163 | 0.29 | |
W18 | Kunar | . | . | 0.424 | 0.06 | 282.5 | <DL | 0.004 | 0.026 | 0.06 | 0.247 | 11.89 | 11.13 | 139.9 | 0.266 | 0.424 |
W19 | Filin Jirgi | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W20 | Biladega | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW1 | Wakama | . | . | 0.067 | 0.062 | 33.88 | 0.002 | 0.001 | <DL | 0.004 | <DL | 9.7 | <DL | 29.52 | 0.021 | 0.067 |
SW2 | Waka | . | . | 0.389 | 0.21 | 340.1 | 0.007 | 0.007 | 0.023 | 0.053 | 0.077 | 87.62 | 36.16 | 198.5 | 0.207 | 0.389 |
SW3 | Waka | . | . | 0.087 | 0.033 | 53.06 | 0.001 | 0.001 | <DL | 0.007 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 27.12 | 0.034 | 0.087 |
SW4 | Tila | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW5 | Tabra Fulani | . | . | 0.041 | 0.033 | 67.83 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.017 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 31.8 | 0.07 | 0.041 |
SW6 | Hena | . | . | 0.074 | 0.046 | 85.57 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.006 | 0.027 | 0.027 | 15.95 | 5.87 | 52.08 | 0.078 | 0.074 |
SW7 | Hena | . | . | 0.116 | 0.034 | 67.77 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.009 | <DL | 7.537 | 0.012 | 35.54 | 0.041 | 0.116 |
SW8 | Hena | . | . | 0.067 | 0.095 | 75.39 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.013 | <DL | <DL | 1.011 | 46.54 | 0.065 | 0.067 |
SW9 | Army Barrack | . | . | 0.021 | 0.008 | 17.57 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 7.749 | 0.006 | 0.021 |
SW10 | Army Barrack | . | . | 0.032 | 0.009 | 16.92 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 6.879 | 0.012 | 0.032 |
SW11 | Kunar | . | . | 0.036 | 0.023 | 32.56 | 0.001 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 16.56 | 0.017 | 0.036 |
SPW | Yimirshika | . | . | 0.477 | 0.092 | 332.2 | 0.048 | 0.084 | 0.344 | 0.649 | 1.678 | 144 | 153.7 | 17.35 | 2.901 | 0.477 |
TLK | Tila | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
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KEY : <DL = Below Detection Limit, BH = Borehole, W = Well, SW = Surface Water, SPW =
spring Water, TLK = Tila Lake
Table 1b: Major and Trace Element Concentration in water
Samples Locality ID | Coordinates | Mo | Na | Ni | P | Pb | S | Sb | Sc | Se | Sr | Ti | V | Zn | ||
(mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | (mg/l) | ||||
BH1 Waka . . 0.041 22.56 0.009 2.134 0.165 131.7 0.034 0.001 0.136 0.733 <DL 0.197 <DL | ||||||||||||||||
BH2 | Hena | . | . | 0.009 | 25.64 | 0.001 | 0.447 | 0.107 | 0.416 | 0.012 | <DL | 0.101 | 0.447 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
BH3 | Army Barrack | . | . | 0.009 | 30.99 | 0.003 | 0.505 | 0.091 | 8.458 | 0.019 | <DL | 0.047 | 0.466 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
BH4 | Biu BCJ | . | . | 0.007 | 77.63 | 0.003 | 0.477 | 0.067 | 6.036 | 0.008 | <DL | 0.11 | 0.325 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W1 | BCJ | . | . | <DL | 67.89 | 0.002 | 0.322 | <DL | <DL | 0.019 | <DL | 0.026 | 0.138 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W2 | Wakama | . | . | 0.065 | 49.79 | 0.009 | 2.387 | 0.211 | 437.7 | 0.023 | 0.001 | 0.262 | 2.477 | <DL | 0.221 | 0.102 |
W3 | Yimirshika | . | . | <DL | 7.407 | 0.002 | 0.169 | <DL | <DL | 0.017 | <DL | 0.015 | 0.103 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W4 | Waka | . | <DL | 29.65 | 0.003 | 0.402 | <DL | <DL | 0.018 | <DL | 0.017 | 0.182 | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
W5 | Biu | . | . | 0.041 | 19.72 | 0.033 | 1.994 | 0.134 | 183.8 | 0.023 | 0.001 | 0.245 | 1.188 | <DL | <DL | 0.862 |
W6 | biladega | . | 0.004 | 2.4 | 0.004 | 0.545 | 0.01 | 7.466 | 0.017 | <DL | 0.058 | 0.358 | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
W7 | Tabra Fulani | . | . | 0.007 | 42.14 | 0.004 | 0.979 | 0.01 | 2.493 | <DL | <DL | 0.057 | 0.533 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W8 | Malan | . | . | <DL | 23.44 | 0.004 | 0.341 | <DL | <DL | 0.016 | <DL | 0.044 | 0.24 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W9 | Tila | . | . | 0.006 | 36.67 | 0.003 | 0.466 | 0.001 | <DL | 0.022 | <DL | 0.036 | 0.28 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W10 | Tila | . | . | <DL | 38.86 | 0.003 | 0.496 | <DL | <DL | 0.019 | <DL | 0.028 | 0.182 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W11 | Tila | . | . | 0.002 | 17.12 | 0.003 | 0.484 | 0.037 | 6.785 | 0.007 | <DL | 0.055 | 0.36 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W12 | Yimirshika | . | . | <DL | 6.858 | 0.001 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.018 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL |
W13 | Hena | . | . | 0.013 | 17.81 | 0.002 | 1.005 | 0.017 | <DL | 0.015 | <DL | 0.042 | 0.444 | <DL | <DL | 0.811 |
W14 | Hena | . | . | 0.065 | 23.53 | 0.009 | 3.305 | 0.212 | 37.33 | 0.012 | 0.001 | 0.271 | 1.736 | <DL | 0.322 | 1.692 |
W15 | BCJ | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.025 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
W16 | Yimirshika | . | . | 0.006 | 9.561 | 0.002 | 0.593 | <DL | <DL | 0.021 | <DL | <DL | 0.136 | <DL | <DL | 0.503 |
W17 | Gwarta | . | 0.058 | 16.84 | 0.011 | 1.347 | 0.178 | 34.44 | 0.05 | 0.001 | 0.243 | 1.162 | <DL | 0.763 | 1.637 | |
W18 | Kunar | . | . | 0.076 | 18.83 | 0.008 | 3.591 | 0.308 | 58.11 | 0.035 | 0.002 | 0.278 | 1.864 | <DL | 0.673 | 2.453 |
W19 | Filin Jirgi | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.043 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.004 | <DL | <DL |
W20 | Biladega | . | . | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.021 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.056 | <DL | <DL |
SW1 | Wakama | . | . | 0.004 | 27.8 | 0.003 | 0.549 | 0.033 | <DL | 0.015 | <DL | 0.039 | 0.267 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW2 | Waka | . | . | 0.071 | 53.75 | 0.023 | 3.927 | 0.348 | 425.8 | 0.071 | 0.002 | 0.441 | 2.302 | <DL | 0.059 | <DL |
SW3 | Waka | . | . | 0.005 | 42.82 | 0.005 | 0.559 | 0.034 | <DL | 0.021 | <DL | 0.056 | 0.345 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW4 | Tila | . | . | <DL | 112.7 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.026 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.001 | <DL | <DL |
SW5 | Tabra Fulani | . | . | 0.004 | 30.73 | 0.01 | 0.748 | 0.037 | 16.8 | 0.025 | <DL | 0.075 | 0.377 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW6 | Hena | . | . | 0.021 | 44.12 | 0.012 | 1.33 | 0.081 | 70.24 | 0.013 | <DL | 0.158 | 0.724 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW7 | Hena | . | . | 0.007 | 42.74 | 0.002 | 0.946 | 0.03 | 11.2 | 0.015 | <DL | 0.047 | 0.359 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW8 | Hena | . | . | 0.007 | 25.63 | 0.006 | 1.006 | 0.02 | 4.378 | 0.02 | <DL | 0.025 | 0.478 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
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SW9 | Army Barrack | . | . | <DL | 17.17 | 0.003 | 0.257 | <DL | <DL | 0.015 | <DL | 0.009 | 0.107 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW10 | Army Barrack | . | . | <DL | 48.12 | 0.003 | 0.173 | <DL | <DL | 0.019 | <DL | 0.012 | 0.094 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SW11 | Kunar | . | . | <DL | 33.89 | 0.001 | 0.225 | <DL | <DL | 0.023 | <DL | 0.054 | 0.212 | <DL | <DL | <DL |
SPW | Yimirshika | . | . | 1.039 | 21.27 | 0.003 | 44.6 | 0.374 | 784.7 | <DL | 0.024 | 0.432 | 22.96 | <DL | 15.6 | 17.1 |
TLK | Tila | . | . | <DL | 78.73 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.041 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.001 | <DL | <DL |
KEY : <DL = Below Detection Limit, BH = Borehole, W = Well, SW = Surface Water, SPW = spring Water, TLK = Tila Lake
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Samples Locations | MgO | K2O | CaO | TiO2 | Fe2O3 | V | Cr | Mn | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | As | Se | Mo | Cd | Sb | Pb | Be | |
ID | (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | (ppm) | |
1 10 3 0. 3 , 11 51 29.0 " E | 1.50 | 0.65 | 2.09 | 0.01 | 1.12 | <DL | 34.09 | 406.9 | 13.48 | 43.4 | 13.49 | 467.3 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 1.604 | <DL | 3.479 | <DL | |
2 10 31 8.2 , 12 1 39.0 " E | 1.76 | 0.75 | 2.31 | 40.01 | 49.81 | 112.2 | 230.3 | 791.3 | 45.87 | 89.03 | 51.54 | 495.6 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 16.83 | <DL | |
3 10 31 1 .8 , 12 13 06.8 " E | 2.34 | 0.80 | 0.40 | 68.67 | 85.0 | 82.64 | 440.9 | 2074 | 110.8 | 227.8 | 92.21 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 32.56 | <DL | |
10 3 5 . , 12 11 41.9 " E | 8.18 | 0.82 | 4.16 | 15.31 | 28.41 | <DL | 246.7 | 1153 | 59.71 | 296.7 | 60.65 | 252.3 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 6.391 | <DL | |
5 10 3 51.1 , 12 12 50.9 " E | 3.94 | 0.72 | 3.60 | 3.60 | 19.33 | <DL | 151.8 | 1716 | 60.29 | 168.7 | 37.52 | 261.7 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 7.9 | <DL | |
10 3 3 . , 12 12 48.1 " E | 4.11 | 0.53 | 4.77 | 27.07 | 29.87 | <DL | 151.5 | 1507 | 58.13 | 221.2 | 47.15 | 295.3 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 3.021 | <DL | |
10 35 3 . , 12 0 57.9 " E | 4.40 | 0.75 | 4.13 | 12.98 | 34.71 | <DL | 183.7 | 3352 | 111.3 | 231 | 45.06 | 245.6 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 13.58 | <DL | |
8 10 3 2 .8 , 12 08 03.2 " E | 4.54 | 0.70 | 3.69 | 7.35 | 14.26 | <DL | 154.3 | 914.5 | 41.31 | 177 | 42.59 | 495.6 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 5.161 | <DL | |
10 32 50.3 , 12 08 01.9 " E | 10.81 | 2.32 | 11.63 | 4.37 | 16.29 | <DL | 166.3 | 1857 | 52.97 | 170.6 | 49.62 | 349.4 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
10 10 32 50.3 , 12 08 55.3 " E | 1.52 | 0.85 | 1.49 | 16.15 | 30.63 | 23.64 | 153.3 | 862.9 | 41.68 | 104 | 34.09 | 276.1 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 9.556 | <DL | |
11 10 3 08.1 , 12 0 55.6 " E | 2.43 | 0.85 | 2.62 | 1.63 | 23.1 | <DL | 92.27 | 1771 | 46.66 | 98.06 | 28.01 | 268.3 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | 42.95 | <DL | |
12 10 32 5.2 , 12 12 30.2 " E | 6.26 | 3.09 | 4.29 | 6.23 | 41.16 | <DL | 163.5 | 25.28 | 83.9 | 250.1 | 59.97 | 324.6 | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | <DL | |
13 10 32 2 .8 , 12 11 13.7 " E | 1.72 | 0.63 | 1.92 | 0.80 | 13.21 | <DL | 114.9 | 8.11 | 46.61 | 95.93 | 29.1 | 346.6 | <DL | <DL | <DL | 0.365 | <DL | 6.803 | <DL |
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Table 3: Average Major and Trace Element Composition of Basalt | |||
Elements | Unit Symbol | 1 | 2 |
MgO | % | 11 | 10.6 |
K2O | % | 10.2 | 2.07 |
CaO | % | 22 | 9.95 |
TiO2 | % | 10.3 | 2.23 |
Fe2O3 | % | 30 | 10.71 |
MnO | % | 0.3 | 1,500 |
V | ppm | 73 | 250 |
Cr | ppm | 176 | 170 |
Co | ppm | 59 | 60 |
Ni | ppm | 176 | 100 |
Cu | ppm | 45 | 87 |
Zn | ppm | 339 | 105 |
Pb | ppm | 14 | 6 |
As | ppm | <DL | 2 |
Cd | ppm | 1 | - |
Se | ppm | - | - |
Mo | ppm | - | - |
Sb | ppm | - | - |
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Trace Elements | Surface Water | Ground Water | Soil | ||
Stream | Well | Borehole | (ppm) | ||
(mg/L) | (mg/L) | (mg/L) | |||
Ba | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.02 | - | |
Ca | 38 | 112 | 76 | 126 | |
K | 39 | 9 | - | 173 | |
Mg | 29 | 50 | 41 | 123 | |
Na | 45 | 25 | 39 | - | |
P | 5 | 1 | 0.89 | - | |
S | 22 | 96 | 37 | - | |
As | 0.49 | 0.13 | 0.11 | - | |
Cd | 0.01 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.02 | |
Co | 0.01 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 59 | |
Cr | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.003 | 176 | |
Cu | 0.1 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 45 | |
Fe | 0.9 | 0.31 | - | 46 | |
I | 53 | 8 | 18 | - | |
Mn | 0.3 | 0.14 | 0.05 | 15 | |
Mo | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.02 | - | |
Ni | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.004 | 17 | |
Pb | 0.5 | 0.11 | 0.1 | 14 | |
Sb | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | - | |
Sc | 0.01 | 0.001 | - | - | |
Se | 0.48 | 0.11 | 0.1 | - | |
Sr | 3 | 0.71 | 0.49 | - | |
Ti | - | 0.003 | - | 20 | |
V | 8 | 0.49 | - | 73 | |
Zn | - | 1.2 | - | 34 |
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These major elements are the most affected by weathering. They are nearly or completely leached away from the weathered volcanic soils. This is clearly observed when the weathered volcanic soils are compared with typical fresh Basalts (Saidu, 2004), for example the concentrations of MgO, CaO, TiO2 and K2O are 10.69, 9.95,
2.23 and 2.07 % respectively in parent rock compared with
1, 2, 0.3 and 0.2 % respectively in weathered volcanic soils
“Table 2”. Fe2O3 shows concentration in twelve out of thirteen soils samples with concentrations of 49.81, 85,
28.41, 19.33, 29.87, 34.71, 14.26, 16.29, 30.63, 23.1, 42, and 13
% respectively, higher than average chemical composition of Biu Basalts of 10.71 %. However, near absence in water could be its inability to remain in solution.
The major elements: Mg (7-199 mg/l) and Na (2.4-
78 mg/l) are within the minimum permissible drinking water level when compared with the World Health Organization (WHO) Standard of 500 and 200 mg/l respectively, however, Calcium shows elevated concentrations in wells, surface water and spring water of
300, 318, 255, 283, 240 and 332 mg/l respectively as against WHO admissible standard of 200 mg/l. Potassium also shows elevated concentrations in spring water (SPW), surface water (SW) and well (W) with higher values of
15.37, 22.51 and 36.16 mg/l respectively, when compared
with 12 mg/l of WHO standard “Table ”.
The total hardness values of the waters in Biu
volcanic Province ranges from 70 to 1666 mg/l indicating
that the water from boreholes, wells and surface waters are moderate to very hard, therefore, not suitable for both drinking, washing and bathing. The total hardness was calculated from the equation T = 2.497[(Ca2+)
+4.11(mg2+)].
These elements As, Se, Cd and Sb are intensively leached away from their weathering profiles resulting in their depletion (Table 2). Compared with parent rock [10], Co recorded high anomaly of 111 and 84 ppm as against average composition of basalts of 60 ppm “Fig. 5”, while, Cr has three anomalies of 441, 247 and 230 ppm greater than average composition of basalts of 1 0 ppm “Fig. ”.
The concentration of Cu is 92 ppm greater than
average composition of basalt of 87 ppm in one sample
only. Ni has high anomalies of 297, 250, 231, 228, 221, 171,
169 and104 greater than average composition of basalt of
100 pm “Fig. ”. Pb shows elevated concentration of ,
33, 17, 14, 10, 8 and 7 ppm compared average composition of basalts ppm “Fig. 8”. Zn present high anomaly greater than average composition of basalt (105 ppm) in all the samples, the concentration ranges from 246 – ppm “Fig.
”.
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Arsenic present values as high as 0.45, 0.42, 0.39 and 0.32 mg/l in surface, well and spring water respectively “Table 1”. These values are about 10x the WHO admissible value of 0.01 mg/l for safe drinking water. “Fig. 10” shows spatial distribution of As.
Arsenic is a metalloid element found ubiquitously in nature, occurring in rocks and soil, coal, volcanic emissions, volcanic sediments, undersea hydrothermal vents (“black smokers”), hot springs, and extraterrestrial material. It is the twentieth most abundant element in the earth’s crust, with an average concentration of 2 mg kg−1.
Worldwide, water contamination is the most
common source of exposure to environmental arsenic. A
range of health effects have been associated with long-term chronic arsenic exposure, including cancer (skin, lung, bladder, and kidney), atherosclerosis, and peripheral vascular disease. Epidemiological data have also suggested a link with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and anaemia [11].
Se concentration is very high with values of 0.44,
0.43, 0.28, 0.27, 0.26, and 0.25 mg/l above WHO value of
safe drinking water of 0.01mg/l in surface, well and spring
water “Table 1”. “Fig. 11” shows spatial distribution of Se.
When ingested into the body, arsenic is distributed
widely, with greatest concentrations in ectodermal tissues
including the skin, hair, and nails. As might be expected, the skin is a primary target organ for arsenic toxicity, especially with chronic exposures [8].
The average concentration of As in surface water is
0.49mg/l higher than groundwater with concentration of
0.12mg/l, “Table ”, suggesting that the spring water could have acted as the transport medium for this element released from deep-seated source(s).
Average concentration shows treat of health
hazard to the inhabitants.
Selenium (Se) is essential to human and other animal health in trace amounts, but is toxic in excess. Acute and fatal toxicities have occurred with accidental or suicidal ingestion of gram quantities of selenium. Chronic selenium toxicity (selenosis) may occur with smaller doses of selenium over long periods of time. The most frequently reported symptoms of selenosis are hair and nail brittleness and loss.
Other symptoms may include gastrointestinal disturbances, skin rashes, a garlic breath odor, fatigue, irritability, and nervous system abnormalities [7].
According to [8], getting sufficient quantities of selenium may increase thyroid hormone metabolism, improve fertility, help fight cancer, and reduce risk of
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cardiovascular diseases and arthritis. Higher selenium levels can help slow down the replication of the HIV virus. Her study actually found that "AIDS patients with low levels of selenium were 20 times more likely to die from an AIDS-related illness than those with healthy levels of the mineral."
Toxic effects of ‘Se’ on skin and nails of the
inhabitants of the volcanic province were recorded.
The average concentration of Se in surface water is
0.48mg/l higher than groundwater with concentration of
11mg/l “Table ”.
Average concentrationn shows over exposure which is a treat to the inhabitants.
Sb presents high value of 0.071, 0.047, 0.041 and
0.034 mg/l in surface, well, spring and borehole waters respectively. These values are about 10x the WHO
admissible value of 0.005 mg/l for safe drinking water
“Table 1”. Spatial distribution of Sb is shown in “Fig. 12”.
Antimony is most environmentally available as
dusts which, after becoming airborne, deposit on land or in water. Antimony has been used since antiquity as a medicinal, to induce emesis and to treat other conditions; as well as in cosmetics.
However, little was understood concerning
antimony toxicity until major processing of ore began at around the turn of the century and specific toxic effects were noticed in workers processing antimony.
These effects included “antimony spots” a form of
dermatitis, and later respiratory, pulmonary and heart
effects were noted and cancer was suspected [2]
The toxic effect of antimony on the inhabitants of
the volcanic province was not encountered. Collaborative
effort needs to be done to unravel the relationships between human exposure and human health impact in the study area.
Elevated concentration of lead with values of 0.37,
0.35, 0.31, 0.21, 0.21 and 0.17 mg/l were recorded in surface, well, spring and borehole waters respectively “Table 1”. These values are about 10x the WHO admissible value of
0.01 mg/l for safe drinking water. The concentration of As
is shown in “Fig. 13”.
Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica Pictonum, saturnism, Devon colic, or painter's colic) is a medical condition caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body. Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems [3]. It interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and behaviour disorders.
Symptoms include abdominal pain, headache, anaemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma, and death. Based on the computed average values the concentration of lead in the surface and spring water is 0.5 mg/l compared to 0.11 mg/l of ground water samples, “Table 3”.
From the concentration above the inhabitants are overexposed due to high percentage of Pb in drinking the water.
Cd In the study area has high values of 0.05, 0.007,
0.006 and 0.004 mg/l respectively above WHO admissible
standard of 0.003 mg/l in spring, surface, well, and
borehole waters “Table ”. “Fig. 1 ” shows distribution of
Cd
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Pollution Index of the water shows that it is polluted with As, Pb, Sb and Se but not polluted with Cd “Table ”.
Cadmium occurs naturally in the environment from the gradual process of erosion and abrasion of rocks and soils, and from singular events such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. It is therefore naturally present everywhere in air, water, soils and foodstuffs.
Cadmium is recognized to produce toxic effects on
humans. Long-term occupational exposure can cause
adverse health effects on the lungs and kidneys [9]. Under
normal conditions, adverse human health effects have not
metal Pollution Index
been encountered from general population exposure to
cadmium.
The average concentration of the element in
”.
Average concentration shows that the inhabitants are exposed to cadmium.
pollution load index to assess the extent of pollution by metals in estuarine sediments. Sediment pollution load index was calculated using the equation:
CF = Cmetal / Cbackground
PI = n √ (CF1 × CF2 × CF3 × ........ CFn)
Where, CF is the contamination factor, Cmetal is the concentration of pollutant in sedimentCbackground is the background value for the metal
n is the number of metals.
The PI value > 1 is polluted whereas < 1 indicates no
pollution.
“Table 5” gives PI calculation of Biu Volcanic soil.
Results showed that Biu Volcanic Soils are not polluted with V and Cu but polluted with Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn and Pb.
V 0.4 non polluted
Cr 2.3 Polluted Mn 5.6 Polluted Co 2.1 Polluted Ni 1.7 polluted
Cu 0.1 non polluted
Zn 1.5 polluted
Pb 2.4 polluted
From the discussion above, geochemical analysis of the volcanic soil revealed the complete leaching of the major elements (Fe2O3, CaO, K2O, MgO, MnO, TiO2) from the surface soil probably into water sources. This may explain the extremely high CaO and K2O levels especially in the stream water where they display values of 348mg/l and 36 mg/l as against 200mg/l to 12 mg/l respectively of WHO admissible limits for drinking water. However, the near-absence of Fe2O3, MgO and Na2O in the water could be as a result of their inability to remain in solution as soluble ions. The accumulation of transition metals in the soil (Co 84-111ppm; Cr: 230-443ppm); Ni: 169-237ppm) is geogenic derived from the weathering of the host basaltic
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rock. Cr, Ni, and Cu do not easily form soluble ions in solution explaining why they display lower levels below their respective WHO admissible limits for drinking water. The absence in the soil profile and the extremely higher values of Potentially Harmful Elements (PHEs) (As, Se, Sb, and Cd) in the spring and stream water as opposed to the lower values in the wells and borehole water suggest their extreme solubility, the leaching and transportation of these elements from parent rocks. The higher values of Zn and Pb (10-40ppm and 246-496ppm respectively) 4x their average abundance in basalts, could be explained like for Co, Cr, Ni, by their absorption and retention in clay minerals structure.
Most inhabitants of the volcanic province rely on any of these available water sources (surface and ground waters) for their drinking and other domestic purposes. The over-exposure to Potentially Harmful Elements through the ingestion of water and food could have adverse health hazards. Few of the inhabitants show manifestations of nail deformity (nail thickening and brittleness), and hyperpigmentation of the skin and hand palms. Others present various forms of skin diseases (especially skin growth) which all could be attributed to exposure to As and Se toxicity “Plate (1-10)”.
The present study revealed that both surface and ground waters are contaminated by Potentially Harmful Elements (PHEs) (As, Pb, Sb and Se) far above WHO admissible standard. The study discovered that due to
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overexposure of these toxic elements some people are affected with problem of diabetes, loss of hearing, hair loss, deformed nails and various skin problems like: rashes, abnormal growth, skin lesion and roughness, could be attributed to exposure to As and Se toxicity.
These examples underscore the pressing need for
the development of collaborative research (with the medics
and other scientists) to investigate human health problems associated with the exposure to these trace metals in Biu volcanic province, Nigeria. Such knowledge is essential for the control and management of these health problems.
[1] U. A. Mohammed, “Hydrogeochemistry of trace metals in Biu volcanic Province: Human Health Impact”, MSc dissertation, Dept. of Geol. and Min.., Jos, Univ., 2011.
[2] B. A. Fowler and P. L. Goering, “Antimony”, In:
Merian E, ed. Metals and their compounds in the
environment: occurrence, analysis, and biological relevance. Weinheim, VCH, pp. 743–750, 1991.
[3] L. D. Grant, “Lead and compounds”, In Lippmann, M.
Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their
Health Effects, 3rd edition. Wiley-Interscience.
ISBN 0471793353, 2009.
[4] C. C. Johnson, X. Ge, K. A. Green and X. Li , “Selenium
distribution in the local environment of selected villages of the Keshan Disease belt, Zhangjiakou istrict, Hebei Province, People’s Republic of China”.
Applied Geochemistry. Vol. 15. No. 3, 2000.
[5] U.A. Lar, “Trace Element and Health”: Some Case
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[6] U. A. Lar and A. Tejan, Highlights of some
environmental problems of geomedical significance in Nigeria”, Journal of Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 30:383-389, 2008.
[7] M. Maloney, “Arsenic in dermatology”, Dermatol Surg;
22:301-304, 1996.
[8] R. Margaret, “The importance of selenium to human
health”, The Lancet, Volume 356, Number 9225, 2000.
[9] K. Nogawa, E. Kobayashi, Y. Okubo and Y. Suwazono,
“Environmental cadmium exposure, adverse effects,
and preventative measures in Japan”, Biometals 17 (5):
581–587, 2004.
[10] Y. Saidu, ”Geochemical characteristic and evolution of the Biu Plateau basalt”, MSc. dissertation, Dept. of Geol. and Min., Jos, Univ., 2004.
[11] P. L. Smedley and D. G. Kinniburg, “A review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural waters”, Applied Geochemistry 17 (5): 517–568.1-4,
2002.
[12] D. C. Tomlinson, J. G. Wilson, C. R. Harris and D. W.
Jeffery, “Problems in the assessment of heavy metals levels in estuaries and the formation of a pollution index”, Helgol.Wiss. Meeresunters., 33 (1-4), 566-575
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[13] D. C. Turner, “Volcanoes of the Biu Basalts, North
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